Production of insulin

3:15 AM | 0 Comments


Certain human proteins, such as insulin, are sometimes needed on demand. Unfortunately, our bodies can not produce them on the spot. This can be very dangerous for some people, like those with diabetes. Diabetics do not produce enough insulin, and therefore they need a way to obtain new insulin. Through genetic engineering, insulin can be created to be ready when needed.
Genes can be transplanted from one organism to another through the use of genetic engineering. The genes can then be combined with genes of the second organism. This is used to move human genes into mammals such as goats and sheep so that the animals can then produce great quantities of human proteins, such as insulin. Microorganisms are also used to help produce human proteins. This is useful so that there will always be a supply of insulin for people with diabetes. The proceduce of transplanting genes is shown below using a bacterium.

Production of organ

3:13 AM | 0 Comments


A major problem that exists in the United States today is the unavailability of organs for necessary transplants. However, with the use of a new technique, man-made tissues or organs, known as "neo-organs" are being created. This would increase the supply of organs and therefore save many lives.

There are two procedures used to fix a wound or an organ that needs to be regenerated. The first procedure creates new tissue and involves a tissue engineer injecting a given molecule, such as a growth factor, into the wound or organ. The patient's own cells are caused to migrate into the wound site, change into the correct cell type, and regenerate the tissue. The second procedure creates new organs and involves placing cells into three-dimensional scaffolds of biodegradable polymers. The whole structure of cells and scaffolding is placed into the wound site. The cells then replicate, reorganize and form new tissue. At the same time, the artificial scaffolding breaks down, leaving a totally natural product, a neo-organ.

Production of insulin

3:11 AM | 0 Comments

Certain human proteins, such as insulin, are sometimes needed on demand. Unfortunately, our bodies can not produce them on the spot. This can be very dangerous for some people, like those with diabetes. Diabetics do not produce enough insulin, and therefore they need a way to obtain new insulin. Through genetic engineering, insulin can be created to be ready when needed.
Genes can be transplanted from one organism to another through the use of genetic engineering. The genes can then be combined with genes of the second organism. This is used to move human genes into mammals such as goats and sheep so that the animals can then produce great quantities of human proteins, such as insulin. Microorganisms are also used to help produce human proteins. This is useful so that there will always be a supply of insulin for people with diabetes. The proceduce of transplanting genes is shown below using a bacterium.

Genetic Engineering

3:11 AM | 0 Comments

Genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM) and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct manipulation of an organism's genes.[1] Genetic engineering is different from traditional breeding, where the organism's genes are manipulated indirectly. Genetic engineering uses the techniques of molecular cloning and transformation to alter the structure and characteristics of genes directly. Genetic engineering techniques have found some successes in numerous applications. Some examples are in improving crop technology, the manufacture of synthetic human insulin through the use of modified bacteria, the manufacture of erythropoietin in hamster ovary cells, and the production of new types of experimental mice such as the oncomouse (cancer mouse) for research.

Histery of GE

3:10 AM | 0 Comments


Ancient History
Selective breeding has been going on for countless generations. In fact, it is even mentioned in the Bible (Genesis 30:25 - 43). In the account, Jacob was employed as a shepherd under his father-in-law Laban. Instead of receiving wages, Jacob received the black, streaked, and spotted sheep, and Laban kept all the white sheep. Jacob craftily arranged for his black sheep to mate with Laban's white sheep, producing streaked and spotted sheep. Jacob did so well with this scheme that Laban's family began to get mad at Jacob, and he eventually had to leave.

Difficulties
Selective breeding is effective enough if the goal is to maintain or gradually improve a group of animals. Over the decades, selective breeding has brought us improved strains of cattle and specialized breeds of dogs. However, these advances have taken hundreds of years to effect. In addition to the time concerns, it is often impossible to know which traits will be transferred to the offspring.

Limits
Selective breeding is a long, tedious process that has its limits. It is impossible through selective breeding to mix traits from two totally different species. If a junkyard owner wanted a guard dog that could squirt ink like an octopus, he would be unable to create such an animal. It is physically impossible, because the genetics of life are such that traits from two different organisms cannot be mixed. That is where genetic engineering comes in.

The Progress
Modern genetic engineering began in 1973 when Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen used enzymes to cut a bacteria plasmid and insert another strand of DNA in the gap. Both bits of DNA were from the same type of bacteria, but this milestone, the invention of recombinant DNA technology, offered a window into the previously impossible -- the mixing of traits between totally dissimilar organisms. To prove that this was possible, Cohen and Boyer used the same process to put a bit of frog DNA into a bacteria.
Since 1973, this technology has been made more controllable by the discovery of new enzymes to cut the DNA differently and by mapping the genetic code of different organisms. Now that we have a better idea of what part of the genetic code does what, we have been able to make bacteria that produce human insulin for diabetics (previously came from livestock), as well as EPO for people on kidney dialysis (previously came from urine of people in third world countries with ringworm).
In 1990, a young child with an extremely poor immune system recieved genetic therapy. Some of her white blood cells were genetically manipulated and re-introduced into her bloodstream while she watched Sesame Street. These new cells have taken over for the original, weak white cells, and her immune system now works properly. Although relatively few people have had their cells genetically altered, these advances have made the prospect of mainstream genetic medicine seem more likely.

Advatage and Disadvantage of GE

3:07 AM | 0 Comments



Genetic Engineering Advantages & Disadvantages
- Genetics and Evolution

During the latter stage stages of the 20th century, man harnessed the power of the atom, and not long after, soon realised the power of genes. Genetic engineering is going to become a very mainstream part of our lives sooner or later, because there are so many possibilities advantages (and disadvantages) involved. Here are just some of the advantages :

* Disease could be prevented by detecting people/plants/animals that are genetically prone to certain hereditary diseases, and preparing for the inevitable. Also, infectious diseases can be treated by implanting genes that code for antiviral proteins specific to each antigen.
* Animals and plants can be 'tailor made' to show desirable characteristics. Genes could also be manipulated in trees for example, to absorb more CO2 and reduce the threat of global warming.
* Genetic Engineering could increase genetic diversity, and produce more variant alleles which could also be crossed over and implanted into other species. It is possible to alter the genetics of wheat plants to grow insulin for example.

Of course there are two sides to the coin, here are some possible eventualities and disadvantages.

* Nature is an extremely complex inter-related chain consisting of many species linked in the food chain. Some scientists believe that introducing genetically modified genes may have an irreversible effect with consequences yet unknown.
* Genetic engineering borderlines on many moral issues, particularly involving religion, which questions whether man has the right to manipulate the laws and course of nature.

Genetic engineering may be one of the greatest breakthroughs in recent history alongside the discovery of the atom and space flight, however, with the above eventualities and facts above in hand, governments have produced legislation to control what sort of experiments are done involving genetic engineering. In the UK there are strict laws prohibiting any experiments involving the cloning of humans. However, over the years here are some of the experimental 'breakthroughs' made possible by genetic engineering.

* At the Roslin Institute in Scotland, scientists successfully cloned an exact copy of a sheep, named 'Dolly'. This was the first successful cloning of an animal, and most likely the first occurrence of two organisms being genetically identical. Note : Recently the sheep's health has deteriorated detrimentally
* Scientists successfully manipulated the genetic sequence of a rat to grow a human ear on its back. (Unusual, but for the purpose of reproducing human organs for medical purposes)
* Most controversially, and maybe due to more liberal laws, an American scientist is currently conducting tests to clone himself.

Genetic engineering has been impossible until recent times due to the complex and microscopic nature of DNA and its component nucleotides. Through progressive studies, more and more in this area is being made possible, with the above examples only showing some of the potential that genetic engineering shows.

For us to understand chromosomes and DNA more clearly, they can be mapped for future reference. More simplistic organisms such as fruit fly (Drosophila) have been chromosome mapped due to their simplistic nature meaning they will require less genes to operate. At present, a task named the Human Genome Project is mapping the human genome, and should be completed in the next ten years.

The process of genetic engineering involves splicing an area of a chromosome, a gene, that controls a certain characteristic of the body. The enzyme endonuclease is used to split a DNA sequence and split the gene from the rest of the chromosome. For example, this gene may be programmed to produce an antiviral protein. This gene is removed and can be placed into another organism. For example, it can be placed into a bacteria, where it is sealed into the DNA chain using ligase. When the chromosome is once again sealed, the bacteria is now effectively re-programmed to replicate this new antiviral protein. The bacteria can continue to live a healthy life, though genetic engineering and human intervention has actively manipulated what the bacteria actually is. No doubt there are advantages and disadvantages, and this whole subject area will become more prominent over time.

The next page returns the more natural circumstances of genetic diversity.

Say no to genetic engineering

3:06 AM | 0 Comments

While scientific progress on molecular biology has a great potential to increase our understanding of nature and provide new medical tools, it should not be used as justification to turn the environment into a giant genetic experiment by commercial interests. The biodiversity and environmental integrity of the world's food supply is too important to our survival to be put at risk.
Genetic engineering enables scientists to create plants, animals and micro-organisms by manipulating genes in a way that does not occur naturally.

These genetically modified organisms (GMO) can spread through nature and interbreed with natural organisms, thereby contaminating non 'GE' environments and future generations in an unforeseeable and uncontrollable way.

About